M. Hunter Martaindale, Ph.D.
Director of Research & Associate Research Professor | ALERRT Center, Texas State University
Education
| Degree | Institution | Year |
|---|---|---|
| Ph.D., Criminal Justice | Texas State University | 2016 |
| M.S., Criminal Justice | Texas State University | 2011 |
| B.G.S., General Studies | Texas A&M University - Texarkana | 2009 |
Areas of Interest
Active shooter/attacker response | Police use of force | Law enforcement training and stress | Virtual reality-based training | School safety | First responder health and wellness
Refereed Journal Articles
(* denotes student involvement)
*Eleuterio-da-Rocha, J., Tanksley, P. T., Martaindale, M. H., Johncox, J., & Blair, J. P. (2026). Striking or grappling? Comparing public and officers’ perceptions of police use of force. Journal of Criminal Justice, 103, 102601. DOI
Tanksley, P. T., Barnes, J. C., Blair, J. P., & Martaindale, M. H. (2026). Clarifying methods and interpretations in law enforcement mortality surveillance: Response to Kamal. The Lancet Regional Health - Americas, 53, 101330. DOI
Martaindale, M. H., & Tanksley, P. T. (2026). Public opinion and the immediate entry dilemma: A factorial survey experiment on active shooter response. Journal of Criminal Justice, 102, 102578. DOI
Tanksley, P. T., Barnes, J. C., Blair, J. P., & Martaindale, M. H. (2025). Mortality among law enforcement officers in the United States: A population-wide analysis of the National Occupational Mortality Surveillance data, 2020-2023. The Lancet Regional Health - Americas, 52, 101270. DOI
McAllister, M. J., Martaindale, M. H., Womble, A., Sutton, N., & Uriegas, S. (2025). Shift schedule change from 24/48 to 1/3/2/3 improves markers of stress and quality of life in career firefighters. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. DOI
*Sutton, N., Martaindale, M. H., Uriegas, S., Dillard, C. C., & McAllister, M. J. (2025). Virtual reality based active shooter training: Added physical stress increases anxiety but not stress biomarkers. Psychoneuroendocrinology. DOI
Blair, J. P., Tanksley, P. T., Spivey, E., & Martaindale, M. H. (2025). To what are we inferring? The widespread misuse of inferential testing in the most cited criminology and criminal justice journals. American Journal of Criminal Justice. DOI
Blair, J. P., Martaindale, M. H., Tanksley, P. T., & Johncox, J. D. (2025). Active attacks with motor vehicles: A short report and case study of the 2025 New Year’s Day attack in New Orleans, LA. American Journal of Criminal Justice. DOI
*Gonzalez, D. E., Coles, M. E., Tanksley, P. T., Martaindale, M. H., Martin, S. E., & McAllister, M. J. (2025). Relationships between physiological stress biomarkers and cardiovascular disease risk factors among career firefighters. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. DOI
*McAllister, M. J., Dodge, C., Tanksley, P. T., Martaindale, M. H., Martin, S. E., & Gonzalez, D. E. (2025). Markers of fitness, stress, and cardiometabolic disease risk among law enforcement officers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 67(6), 437-444. DOI
Johncox, J. D., Martaindale, M. H., & Sandel, W. L. (2025). Can a Virtual Reality Training Scenario Elicit a Stress Response Similar to a Realistic Scenario Based Training Scenario?. Applied Police Briefings, 1(3), 17-19. DOI
*Doyle, M. K., Sandel, W. L., & Martaindale, M. H. (2024). Oh, @#%$!: A replication and expansion of Martaindale et al. (2024). Policing: An International Journal. DOI
Brimbal, L., Roche, S. P., & Martaindale, M. H. (2024). Interviewing and interrogation practices and beliefs, twenty years later: A national self-report survey of American police. Law and Human Behavior. DOI
*Doyle, M. K., & Martaindale, M. H. (2024). #FalseFlag: Exploring themes in conspiracy theory tweets regarding the Robb Elementary School active shooter event. Journal of Qualitative Criminology. DOI
*McAllister, M. J., Martaindale, M. H., Dillard, C. C., & McCullough, R. (2024). Impact of L-theanine and L-tyrosine on markers of stress and cognitive performance in response to a virtual reality based active shooter training drill. Stress, 27(1), 2375588. DOI
*McAllister, M. J., Martaindale, M. H., Dillard, C. C., & Gonzalez, D. E. (2024). Stress response to virtual reality based active shooter training: Impact of caffeine consumption. Psychoneuroendocrinology. DOI
*Martaindale, M. H., Sandel, W. L., Duron, A., & McAllister, M. J. (2024). Can a virtual reality training scenario elicit similar stress response as a realistic scenario-based training scenario?. Police Quarterly, 27(1), 109-129. DOI
Schildkraut, J., & Martaindale, M. H. (2024). Arm the educators - but not without conditions: A qualitative assessment of law enforcement officers’ support for armed teacher policies. Police Practice and Research, 25(4), 473-489. DOI
Sandel, W. L., Martaindale, M. H., & Blair, J. P. (2024). A scientific examination of the 21-foot rule. Applied Police Briefs, 1(1). DOI
Martaindale, M. H., Sandel, W. L., & Blair, J. P. (2023). Wait for backup or not? How police officers view their role when responding to an active shooter event. Journal of Experimental Criminology. DOI
*Dillard, C. C., Martaindale, M. H., Hunter, S. D., & McAllister, M. J. (2023). Slow breathing reduces biomarkers of stress in response to a virtual-reality active shooter training drill. Healthcare, 11(16). DOI
*Martaindale, M. H., Sandel, W. L., & Duron, A. (2023). Successfully securing a classroom door in an active shooter event: Examining two types of door locks. Journal of Mass Violence Research. DOI
*McAllister, M. J., Gonzalez, D. E., Leonard, M., Martaindale, M. H., Bloomer, R. J., Pence, J., & Martin, S. E. (2023). Risk factors for cardiometabolic disease in professional firefighters. Safety and Health at Work, 65(2), 119-124. DOI
Sandel, W. L., & Martaindale, M. H. (2022). What are we talking about? Definitional confusion within mass and active shooting research. Journal of Mass Violence Research, 1(2), 4-16. DOI
*McAllister, M. J., Gonzalez, D. E., Leonard, M., Martaindale, M. H., Bloomer, R. J., Pence, J., & Martin, S. E. (2022). Firefighters with higher cardiorespiratory fitness demonstrate lower markers of cardiovascular disease risk. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. DOI
*Martaindale, M. H., Sandel, W. L., Duron, A., & Blair, J. P. (2022). #&$@!!: The impact of swear words on civilians’ perception of officer use of force. Police Quarterly, 26(2), 194-212. DOI
*McAllister, M. J., Martaindale, M. H., Gonzalez, A. E., & Case, M. J. (2022). Virtual reality based active shooter training drill increases salivary and subjective markers of stress. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 95(1), 105-113.
Martaindale, M. H., & Schildkraut, J. (2022). Armed and considered capable? Law enforcement officers’ attitudes about armed teacher policies in the United States. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 24(2). DOI
Schildkraut, J., & Martaindale, M. H. (2022). Should firearms be allowed in K-12 public schools? An analysis of law enforcement’s perceptions of armed teacher policies. Security Journal. DOI
*Blair, J. P., Martaindale, M. H., & Spivey, E. D. (2021). An evaluation of light positioning on suspect accuracy in low light environments. Justice Evaluation Journal, 5(1). DOI
McAllister, M. J., & Martaindale, M. H. (2021). Women demonstrate lower markers of stress and oxidative stress during active shooter training drill. Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology, 6, 100046. DOI
Martaindale, M. H. (2021). Improving the accuracy of firearm identification in a dynamic use of force scenario. Police Quarterly, 24(1), 104-130. DOI
Sandel, W. L., Martaindale, M. H., & Blair, J. P. (2021). A scientific examination of the 21-foot rule. Police Practice & Research, 22(3), 1314-1329. DOI
*McAllister, M. J., Martaindale, M. H., & Renteria, L. I. (2020). Active shooter training drill increases blood and salivary markers of stress. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(14). DOI
Blair, J. P., Sandel, W. L., & Martaindale, M. H. (2020). Correlates of the number shot and killed in active shooter events. Homicide Studies, 25(4), 335-360. DOI
Blair, J. P., Martaindale, M. H., & Sandel, W. L. (2019). Peek or push: An examination of two types of room clearing tactics for active shooter event response. Journal of Police Emergency Response, 9(3). DOI
Martaindale, M. H., & Blair, J. P. (2019). The evolution of active shooter response training protocols since Columbine: Lessons from the advanced law enforcement rapid response training center. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 35(3). DOI
Blair, J. P., & Martaindale, M. H. (2017). Throwing a chair could save officers’ lives during room entries. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 19(2). DOI
*Martaindale, M. H., Sandel, W. L., & Blair, J. P. (2017). Active shooter events in the workplace: Findings and policy implications. Journal of Business Continuity and Emergency Planning, 11(1). DOI
Works Under Review
- *McAllister, M. J., Tanksley, P. T., Martaindale, M. H., DeArman, A., Samora, M., Martin, S. E., & Gonzalez, D. E. (under review). Inflammation on the frontlines: Linking salivary blood biomarkers to cardiometabolic health and physical fitness parameters in firefighters. Preventative Medicine Reports.
Books and Book Chapters
Blair, J. P., & Martaindale, M. H. (2024). The Chain of Survival: Responding to an Active Attack. TPPP, LLC.
Martaindale, M. H. (2021). Active Shooter/Hostile Event Overview (Data). In In Moore-Merrell, L., Delaney, J. B., & Marino, M. J. Introduction to Active Shooter/Hostile Event Response. Fire Protection Publications.
Blair, J. P., & Martaindale, M. H. (2013). Active shooter events in the United States - 2000 to 2010. In In Blair, J. P., Nichols, T., Burns, D., & Curnutt, J. R. Active Shooter Events and Response. CRC Press LLC.
Blair, J. P., & Martaindale, M. H. (2013). Evaluating police tactics: An empirical assessment of room entry techniques. Elsevier. DOI
Non-Refereed Articles
Martaindale, M. H. (2023). Putting the lock in lockdown: Examining different options for schools. Rockefeller Institute of Government. Link
Martaindale, M. H. (2023). Assessing acute stress response during live-action and virtual reality training. Police Chief Magazine, IACP. Link
Martaindale, M. H., & Blair, J. P. (2017). Active Shooter Events in Schools. The Journal of School Safety.
Martaindale, M. H. (2015). Police considerations in active shooter events. Royal Canadian Mounted Police Gazette.
Blair, J. P., Martaindale, M. H., & Nichols, T. (2014). Active shooter events from 2000 to 2012. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. Link
Conference Proceedings
Gaitan, A. N., DeArman, A. S., Shakya, L., Martaindale, M. H., & McAllister, M. J. (2026). Comparing the effects of acute participation in target practice versus active shooter virtual reality training on stress biomarkers. Texas American College of Sports Medicine Annual Conference.
Reports
Blair, J. P., Martaindale, M. H., & Curnutt, J. (2020). The ALERRT Room Entry System. Advanced Law Enforcement Rapid Response Training Center at Texas State University.
Martinez-Prather, K., McKenna, J. M., Calder, V., & Martaindale, M. H. (2013). Junior College Audit Report: Findings on Safety and Security in Texas Junior Colleges 2009-2012. Texas School Safety Center, Texas State University.
Sanders, B. A., Bowman, S., Kringen, A. L., Martaindale, M. H., Schildkraut, J., Terranova, V., & Vaughan, T. (2013). Bexar County Felony Probation Terminations 2010 and 2011: Quantitative and Qualitative Data Results. Bexar County Probation, San Antonio, TX.
Blair, J. P., & Martaindale, M. H. (2013). United States Active Shooter Events from 2000 to 2010: Training and Equipment Implications. ALERRT Center, Texas State University.
Funded External Grants
Security Industry Association: School Safety Project (2025). Assessing the effectiveness of door locks in school-based active shooter events. $80,000. PI.
Texas State University Research Accelerator Program (2025). ALERRT micro-learning video creation and evaluation. $101,205. PI.
COPS Office (2025). Preparing for Active Shooter Situations (PASS). $10,200,000. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
BJA (2025). The virtual reality consortium for training development for law enforcement. $560,675. PI.
Department of Homeland Security (2024). Understanding the leakage that precedes mass public shootings and its utility for prevention efforts through public awareness. $89,861. PI.
COPS Office (2024). Preparing for Active Shooter Situations (PASS). $10,400,000. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
SBIR/STTR Phase 1 (2023). Adapting Commercial VR-Based Training to Support AFSOC Mission Sustainment Team Protection & Security Training Objectives. $32,859. PI.
FEMA (2023). Integrated ICS training for all first responders. $621,971. PI.
COPS Office (2023). Preparing for Active Shooter Situations (PASS). $10,958,667. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
COPS Office (2022). Preparing for Active Shooter Situations (PASS). $9,790,000. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
FEMA (2021). Fire as a Weapon (FAAW) In-Person and eLearning Training Opportunities. $439,210. PI.
COPS Office (2021). Preparing for Active Shooter Situations (PASS). $9,790,000. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
COPS Office (2020). Preparing for Active Shooter Situations (PASS). $8,494,893. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
NEC Corporation (2020). Firearm Detection Data. $10,000. PI.
COPS Office (2019). Preparing for Active Shooter Situations (PASS). $8,674,999. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
COPS Office (2018). Preparing for Active Shooter Situations (PASS). $8,707,899. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
COPS Office (2017). Preparing for Active Shooter Situations (PASS). $5,392,529. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
Submitted but Unfunded Grants
NIH (2024). Impact of stress on cardiovascular disease risk among career firefighters. $1,612,046. PI: M. J. McAllister. Co-PI.
NSF (2024). Improving police recruits’ ability to correctly identify weapons through training the visual system. $447,722. PI.
NIJ (2024). Assessing the impact of correctional officer crisis intervention training on use of force incidents across the Texas state prison system. $2,923,376. PI: M. J. Logan. Co-PI.
SBIR/STTR Phase 1 (2024). Adapted Immersive VR Software to Improve Fleet Naval Security Force Training Through Instructional Support Tools. $41,700. PI.
BJA (2023). Developing law enforcement specific virtual reality de-escalation training harnessing artificial intelligence. $4,000,000. PI.
National Collaborative on Gun Violence Research (2023). How do U.S. civilians and law enforcement officers decide whether to petition for an extreme risk protection order? A nationally representative survey. $425,000. PI: J. Schildkraut. Co-PI.
NSF (2023). Improving police recruits’ ability to correctly identify weapons through training the visual system. $447,722. PI.
BJA (2023). Virtual Reality in De-Escalation Training. $112,000. PI: Nevada State Police. Co-PI.
DHS (2023). Understanding the leakage that precedes mass public shootings and its utility for prevention efforts through public awareness. $339,368. PI: J. Schildkraut. Co-PI.
NSF (2023). Improving police recruits’ ability to correctly identify weapons through training the visual system. $250,000. PI.
NIJ (2022). Comprehensive landscape analysis and case studies to understand trends in recruitment and retention among law enforcement agencies. $268,553. PI.
COPS Office (2021). Establishing a regional de-escalation training center: Texas State University - ALERRT Center. $1,250,000. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
NIJ (2021). Improving law enforcement decision making through training the visual system. $197,879. PI.
NIJ (2021). Using virtual reality use of force training to improve citizen perceptions of police encounters. $175,881. PI.
FEMA (2020). Fire as a weapon integrated response: Research-based training for fire and law enforcement personnel. $843,836. PI.
NIJ (2020). Resiliency & Recovery of Law Enforcement Agencies from Singular, Extreme Traumatic Events: Virtual Reality-Based Habituation Training for Active Threat Events. $1,074,563. PI: C. P. Haberman. Co-PI.
National Collaborative on Gun Violence Research (2020). Reducing erroneous police shootings by training the visual system. $347,000. PI.
National Collaborative on Gun Violence Research (2020). Improving the understanding of mass shooters in the United States. $445,000. PI.
NIJ (2019). Improving the understanding of mass shooters in the United States. $1,310,500. PI.
BJA (2018). FY 2018 Preventing Violence Against Law Enforcement Officers and Ensuring Resilience and Survivability (VALOR) Initiative. $2,000,000. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
NIJ (2017). Reducing erroneous police shootings by training the visual system. $320,486. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
NIJ (2016). Improving law enforcement use of force decision-making by training the visual system: Assessing the impact of civilian race/ethnicity and demeanor. $239,141. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
NIJ (2015). The effect of civilian response to compliance commands on law enforcement officers’ decision to shoot. $166,617. PI: J. Pete Blair. Co-PI.
Professional Presentations
(* denotes student involvement)
*Coles, M. E., Martaindale, M. H., Martin, S. E., Colvin, L. C., Gonzalez, D. E., & McAllister, M. J. (2023). Relationship between body fat distribution and cardiovascular disease risk biomarkers among firefighters. American College of Sports Medicine, national conference.
*Dodge, C. D., Martaindale, M. H., Martin, S. E., Colvin, L. C., Gonzalez, D. E., & McAllister, M. J. (2023). Validation of a non-invasive physiological stress assessment: Agreement of salivary and blood cortisol among firefighters. American College of Sports Medicine, national conference.
*Guerra, B. C., Martaindale, M. H., Martin, S. E., Colvin, L. C., Gonzalez, D. E., & McAllister, M. J. (2023). Firefighters versus law enforcement officers: A comparison of cardiovascular disease risk. American College of Sports Medicine, national conference.
*Creeden, L. S., Martaindale, M. H., Martin, S. E., Colvin, L. C., Gonzalez, D. E., & McAllister, M. J. (2023). Impact of cardiorespiratory fitness on markers of cardiovascular disease among law enforcement officers. American College of Sports Medicine, national conference.
*Dillard, C. C., Martaindale, M. H., & McAllister, M. J. (2023). Slow breathing reduces markers of stress in response to a virtual-reality active shooter training drill. Texas ACSM, Waco, TX.
*Gonzalez, D., Leonard, M., Martaindale, M. H., Bloomer, R. J., Pence, J., Martin, S. E., & McAllister, M. J. (2022). Predictors of cardiometabolic disease risk factors in professional firefighters. Texas ACSM, Waco, TX.
*Leonard, M., Gonzalez, D., Martaindale, M. H., Bloomer, R. J., Pence, J., Martin, S. E., & McAllister, M. J. (2022). Impact of cardiorespiratory fitness on markers of cardiovascular disease in professional firefighters. Texas ACSM, Waco, TX.
Martaindale, M. H. (2021). ALERRT research. Annual meeting of the ALERRT Active Shooter Conference, Nashville, TN.
Martaindale, M. H. (2020). The science behind room entries: Empirical findings from the ALERRT Center. International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) Conference.
Martaindale, M. H. (2019). ALERRT research: Research that saves lives. Annual meeting of the ALERRT Active Shooter Conference, Aurora, CO.
Blair, J. P., Martaindale, M. H., & Balding, L. (2019). ALERRT - 20 years of lessons learned. International Association of Fire Fighters’ Redmond Health and Safety Symposium, Nashville, TN.
Martaindale, M. H. (2019). Examining active attack victim response with agent-based modeling. Annual meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, Baltimore, MD.
Martaindale, M. H. (2019). Examining active attack victim response with agent-based modeling. Annual meeting of the Western Society of Criminology, Honolulu, HI.
Martaindale, M. H. (2018). ALERRT (Advanced Law Enforcement Rapid Response Training) Program. Annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Atlanta, GA.
Martaindale, M. H. (2018). ALERRT research: Research that saves lives. Annual meeting of the ALERRT Active Shooter Conference, Grapevine, TX.
Martaindale, M. H. (2017). Deliberately practicing with the visual system to improve officer decision making. Annual meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, Kansas City, MO.
Martaindale, M. H. (2017). Law enforcement tactics research and analysis. Annual meeting of the New York Tactical Officers Association, Verona, NY.
Martaindale, M. H. (2016). Improving use of force decision making through deliberate practice of the visual system. Annual meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, Denver, CO.
Martaindale, M. H. (2016). ALERRT research: Research that saves lives. Annual meeting of the ALERRT Active Shooter Conference, San Marcos, TX.
Martaindale, M. H. (2015). Visual search strategies of suspects ambushing law enforcement. Annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Washington, D.C..
Martaindale, M. H. (2015). Current and future direction of ALERRT research. 2015 ALERRT Active Shooter Conference, San Marcos, TX.
Blair, J. P., & Martaindale, M. H. (2014). Room entry distraction techniques. Annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, San Francisco, CA.
Sanders, B. A., & Martaindale, M. H. (2014). Law enforcement officer evaluations: Methods of development and implementation. Annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, San Francisco, CA.
Kringen, A. L., & Martaindale, M. H. (2014). Felony probation units: Variations in risk and revocation. Annual meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, Philadelphia, PA.
Martaindale, M. H. (2013). Characteristics of active shooters. Annual meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, New York City, NY.
Martaindale, M. H. (2011). Descriptive analysis of active shooter events: 2000-2010. Annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Washington, D.C..
Teaching
CJ 3347: Statistics for Criminal Justice (Undergraduate) - Fall 2018 - Present
Service
Professional Service
IACP Research Advisory Committee (2021 - Present)
IACP Building Trust Subcommittee: Co-Chair (2021 - Present)
IACP Research in Brief Subcommittee: Member (2021 - Present)
Editorial
Associate Editor (Statistics), Journal of Threat Assessment and Management (2021 - Present)
Editorial Board, Journal of Mass Violence Research (2020 - Present)
University Service
Texas State University IRB (2018 - Present)
ACJS Membership Committee (2021, 2022)
ACJS Program Committee (Police Behavior & Decision-Making Topic Chair) (2021)
Consultancies
FBI Active Shooter Working Group (2013 - Present)
GIS Consultant, Bexar County Probation (2012 - 2014)
Quantitative Analysis Consultant, Bexar County Probation (2012 - 2014)
Dissertation and Thesis Committees
Dissertation Committees
Mikelle Angiuli, Texas State University (2025 - Present) - Member
Isaac Horn, Texas State University (2024 - 2025) - Member
Elizabeth Quinby, Texas State University (2024 - 2025) - Member
Madison Doyle, Texas State University (2022 - 2024) - Member
Edwin Vazquez, St. John’s University (2020 - 2024) - Member
Aaron Duron, Texas State University (2021 - Present) - Member
Master’s Thesis Committees
Jeff Swaim, Texas State University (2024) - Chair
Courtney Dillard, Texas State University (2023) - Member
Jose Rodriguez, Texas State University (2018) - Member
Professional Affiliations
International Association of Chiefs of Police (2020 - Present)
Police Executive Research Forum (2025 - Present)
American Society of Criminology (2011 - Present)
Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (2013 - Present)
Alpha Chi Honor Society (2010 - Present)
Citation data last updated: May 25, 2026